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Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church

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The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church (Amharic: የኢትዮጵያ ኦርቶዶክስ ተዋሕዶ ቤተ ክርስቲያን, romanized: Yä-ityopp'ya ortodoks täwahədo betä krəstiyan)[1] is the largest of the Oriental Orthodox Churches. One of the few Christian churches in Africa originating before European colonization of the continent,[5] the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church dates back to the Christianization of the Kingdom of Aksum in 330,[6] and has between 36 million and 51 million adherents in Ethiopia.[2][3][4] It is a founding member of the World Council of Churches.[7] The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church is in communion with the other Oriental Orthodox churches (the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church, the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church, the Armenian Apostolic Church, and the Syriac Orthodox Church).


Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church
የኢትዮጵያ ኦርቶዶክስ ተዋሕዶ ቤተ ክርስቲያን[1]
Yä-ityopp'ya ortodoks täwahədo betäkrəstyan
Holy Trinity Cathedral in Addis Ababa, the seat of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church
Holy Trinity Cathedral in Addis Ababa, the seat of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church
AbbreviationEOTC
ClassificationEastern Christianity
OrientationOriental Orthodoxy
ScriptureOrthodox Tewahedo Bible
TheologyMiaphysitism
PolityEpiscopal
PatriarchMathias
RegionEthiopia and Ethiopian diaspora
LanguageGeʽez, Amharic, Oromo, Tigrinya, Gurage
LiturgyAlexandrian
HeadquartersHoly Trinity Cathedral, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
FounderFrumentius according to Ethiopian Orthodox tradition
Origin4th century
Kingdom of Aksum
Independence1959, from Coptic Orthodox Church
SeparationsAmerican synod-in-exile (1991–2018)
Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church (1991)
Tigrayan Orthodox Tewahedo Church (2021)
Members36 million[2][3]–51 million[4] in Ethiopia
Other name(s)Ethiopian Orthodox Church
This article contains Ethiopic text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Ethiopic characters.

The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church had been administratively part of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria from the first half of the 4th century until 1959, when it was granted autocephaly with its own patriarch by Pope Cyril VI of Alexandria, Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church.[8]

Tewahedo (Ge'ez: ተዋሕዶ täwaḥədo) is a Geʽez word meaning "united as one." This word refers to the Oriental Orthodox belief in Miaphysitism, meaning one perfectly unified nature of Christ; i.e., a complete union of the divine and human natures into one nature is self-evident to accomplish the divine salvation of mankind, as opposed to the "two natures of Christ" belief commonly held by the Latin and Eastern Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Anglican, Lutheran, and most other Protestant churches. The Oriental Orthodox Churches adhere to a miaphysite Christological view followed by Cyril of Alexandria, the leading protagonist in the Christological debates of the 4th and 5th centuries, who advocated "mia physis tou Theo logou sesarkōmenē", or "one (mia) nature of the Word of God incarnate" (μία φύσις τοῦ θεοῦ λόγου σεσαρκωμένη) and a hypostatic union (ἕνωσις καθ' ὑπόστασιν, henōsis kath hypostasis).[9][10] The distinction of this stance was that the incarnate Christ has one nature, but that one nature is of the two natures, divine and human, and retains all the characteristics of both after the union.

Miaphysitism holds that in the one person of Jesus Christ, divinity and humanity are united in one (μία, mia) nature (φύσις - "physis") without separation, without confusion, without alteration and without mixing where Christ is consubstantial with God the Father.[11] Around 500 bishops within the patriarchates of Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem refused to accept the dyophysitism (two natures) doctrine decreed by the Council of Chalcedon in 451, an incident that resulted in the second major split in the main body of the Catholic-Orthodox Church in the Roman Empire.[12]

Name

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Tewahedo (Ge'ez: ተዋሕዶ täwaḥədo) is a Geʽez word meaning "being made one" or "unified" (see also the Arabic word Tawhid). This word refers to the Oriental Orthodox belief in the one composite unified nature of Christ; i.e., a belief that a complete, natural union of the divine and human natures into one is self-evident to accomplish the divine salvation of humankind. This is in contrast to the "two natures of Christ" belief (unmixed, but unseparated divine and human natures, called the hypostatic union) which is held by the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church.

The Oriental Orthodox Churches are known as "non-Chalcedonian", and, sometimes by outsiders as "monophysite" (meaning "One Single Nature", in allusion to Jesus Christ). However, these churches themselves describe their Christology as miaphysite,[13][14] meaning "one united nature" about Jesus (the Greek equivalent of "Tewahedo").

History

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See also: Timeline of Orthodox Tewahedo Christianity

Origins

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Ethiopian Orthodox icon depicting Saint George, the Crucifixion, and the Virgin Mary

John Chrysostom speaks of the "Ethiopians present in Jerusalem" as being able to understand the preaching of Peter in Acts, 2:38.[15] Possible missions of some of the Apostles in the lands now called Ethiopia is also reported as early as the 4th century. Socrates of Constantinople includes Ethiopia in his list as one of the regions preached by Matthew the Apostle,[16] where a specific mention of "Ethiopia south of the Caspian Sea" can be confirmed in some traditions such as the Roman Catholic Church among others.[17] Ethiopian Church tradition tells that Bartholomew accompanied Matthew in a mission which lasted for at least three months.[15] Paintings depicting these missions can be seen in the Church of St. Matthew found in the Province of Pisa, in northern Italy portrayed by Francesco Trevisan (1650–1740) and Marco Benefial (1688–1764).[18]

The earliest account of an Ethiopian converted to the faith in the New Testament books is a royal official baptized by Philip the Evangelist (distinct from Philip the Apostle), one of the seven deacons (Acts, 8:26–27):

Then the angel of the Lord said to Philip, Start out and go south to the road that leads down from Jerusalem to Gaza. So he set out and was on his way when he caught sight of an Ethiopian. This man was a eunuch, a high official of the Kandake (Candace) Queen of Ethiopia in charge of all her treasure. (Acts, 8:26–27)

The passage continues by describing how Philip helped the Ethiopian treasurer understand a passage from the Book of Isaiah that the Ethiopian was reading. After Philip interpreted the passage as prophecy referring to Jesus Christ, the Ethiopian requested that Philip baptize him, and Philip did so. The Ethiopic version of this verse reads "Hendeke" (ህንደኬ); Queen Gersamot Hendeke VII was the Queen of Ethiopia from c. 42 to 52. Where the possibility of gospel missions by the Ethiopian eunuch cannot be directly inferred from the Books of the New Testament, Irenaeus of Lyons around 180 AD writes that "Simon Backos" preached the good news in his homeland outlining also the theme of his preaching as being the coming in flesh of God that "was preached to you all before."[19] The same kind of witness is shared by 3rd and 4th century writers such as Eusebius of Caesarea[20] and Origen of Alexandria.[15]

 
Coin of King Ezana, under whom Early Christianity became the established church of the Kingdom of Aksum

Early Christianity became the established church of the Ethiopian Axumite Kingdom under king Ezana in the 4th century when priesthood and the sacraments were brought for the first time through a Syrian Greek named Frumentius, known by the local population in Ethiopia as "Selama, Kesaté Birhan" ("Father of Peace, Revealer of Light"). As a youth, Frumentius had been shipwrecked with his brother Aedesius on the Eritrean coast. The brothers managed to be brought to the royal court, where they rose to positions of influence and baptized Emperor Ezana. Frumentius is also believed to have established the first monastery in Ethiopia, named Dabba Selama after him. In 2016, archaeologists excavated a 4th-century AD basilica (radio-carbon dated) in northeastern Ethiopia at a site called Beta Samati. This is the earliest known physical evidence of a church in sub-Saharan Africa.[5]

Middle Ages

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Late 17th century portrait of Giyorgis by Baselyos

Union with the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria continued after the Arab conquest of Egypt. Abu Saleh records in the 12th century that the patriarch always sent letters twice a year to the kings of Abyssinia (Ethiopia) and Nubia, until Al Hakim stopped the practice. Cyril, 67th patriarch, sent Severus as bishop, with orders to put down polygamy and to enforce the observance of canonical consecration for all churches. These examples show the close relations of the two churches throughout the Middle Ages.[21] In 1439, in the reign of Zara Yaqob, a religious discussion between Giyorgis and a French visitor led to the dispatch of an embassy from Ethiopia to the Vatican.[21][22]

Jesuit interim

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The period of Jesuit influence, which broke the connection with Egypt, began a new chapter in church history. The initiative in Roman Catholic missions to Ethiopia was taken not by Rome, but by Portugal, in the course of a conflict with the Muslim Ottoman Empire and the Sultanate of Adal for the command of the trade route to India via the Red Sea.[23]

In 1507, Mateus, or Matthew, an Armenian, had been sent as an Ethiopian envoy to Portugal. In 1520, an embassy under Dom Rodrigo de Lima landed in Ethiopia. An interesting account of the Portuguese mission, which lasted for several years, was written by Francisco Álvares, its chaplain.[24]

Later, Ignatius Loyola wished to take up the task of conversion, but was forbidden to do so. Instead, the pope sent out João Nunes Barreto as patriarch of the East Indies, with Andrés de Oviedo as bishop; and from Goa envoys went to Ethiopia, followed by Oviedo himself, to secure the king's adherence to Rome. After repeated failures some measure of success was achieved under Emperor Susenyos I, but not until 1624 did the Emperor make formal submission to the pope.[24] Susenyos made Roman Catholicism the official state religion but was met with heavy resistance by his subjects and by the authorities of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, and eventually had to abdicate in 1632 in favour of his son, Fasilides, who promptly restored Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity as the state religion. He then in 1633 expelled the Jesuits, and in 1665 Fasilides ordered that all Jesuit books (the Books of the Franks) be burned.[citation needed]

Influence on the Reformation

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Icon of Samuel of Waldebba, a 15th-century Ethiopian monk and ascetic of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church

David Daniels has suggested that the Ethiopian Church has had a stronger impact on the Reformation than most scholars acknowledge. For Martin Luther, who spearheaded the Reformation, Daniels says "the Ethiopian Church conferred legitimacy on Luther's emerging Protestant vision of a church outside the authority of the Roman Catholic papacy" as it was "an ancient church with direct ties to the apostles".[25] According to Daniels, Martin Luther saw that the Ethiopian Orthodox Church practiced elements of faith including "communion under both kinds, vernacular Scriptures, and married clergy" and these practices became customary in the Lutheran churches. The Ethiopian church also rejected papal supremacy, purgatory and indulgences, which the Lutherans disagreed with, and thus for Luther, the Ethiopian church was the "true forerunner of Protestantism".[25] Luther believed that the Ethiopian church kept true apostolic practices which the Lutherans would adopt through reading the scriptures.[26]

In 1534, a cleric of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, Michael the Deacon, met with Martin Luther and affirmed the Augsburg Confession, saying "This is a good creed, that is, faith".[27][25] In addition, Martin Luther stated that the Lutheran Mass agreed with that used by the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.[25] As a result, Luther invited the Ethiopian church and Michael to full fellowship.[25][28]

Recent history

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Engraving of Abuna Salama III, head of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church (1841–1867)

In more modern times, the Ethiopian Church has experienced a series of developments. The 19th century witnessed the publication of an Amharic translation of the Bible. Largely the work of Abu Rumi over ten years in Cairo, this version, with some changes, held sway until Emperor Haile Selassie ordered a new translation which appeared in 1960/1.[29] Haile Selassie also played a prominent role in further reforms of the church, which included encouraging the distribution of Abu Rumi's translation throughout Ethiopia,[30] as well as his promotion of improved education of clergy, a significant step in the Emperor's effort being the founding of the Theological College of the Holy Trinity Church in December 1944.[31] A third development came after Haile Selassie's restoration to Ethiopia, when he issued, on 30 November, Decree Number 2 of 1942, a new law reforming the church. The primary objectives of this decree were to put the finances of the church in order, to create a central fund for its activities, and to set forth requirements for the appointment of clergy—which had been fairly lax until then.[32]

The Coptic and Ethiopian churches reached an agreement on 13 July 1948, that led to autocephaly for the Ethiopian Church. Five bishops were immediately consecrated by the Coptic Pope of Alexandria and Patriarch of All Africa, empowered to elect a new patriarch for their church, and the successor to Qerellos IV would have the power to consecrate new bishops.[33] This promotion was completed when Coptic Orthodox Pope Joseph II consecrated an Ethiopian-born Archbishop, Abuna Basilios, 14 January 1951. Then in 1959, Pope Cyril VI of Alexandria crowned Basilios as the first Patriarch of Ethiopia.

 
An Ethiopian Orthodox priest displays the processional crosses.

Basilios died in 1970, and was succeeded that year by Tewophilos. With the fall of Emperor Haile Selassie in 1974, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church was disestablished as the state church. The new Marxist government began nationalizing property (including land) owned by the church. Tewophilos was arrested in 1976 by the Marxist Derg military junta, and secretly executed in 1979. The government ordered the church to elect a new Patriarch, and Takla Haymanot was enthroned. The Coptic Orthodox Church refused to recognize the election and enthronement of Tekle Haymanot on the grounds that the Synod of the Ethiopian Church had not removed Tewophilos and that the government had not publicly acknowledged his death, and he was thus still the legitimate Patriarch of Ethiopia. Formal relations between the two churches were halted, although they remained in communion with each other. Formal relations between the two churches resumed on July 13, 2007.[34]

Tekle Haymanot proved to be much less accommodating to the Derg regime than it had expected, and so when the patriarch died in 1988, a new patriarch with closer ties to the regime was sought. The Archbishop of Gondar, a member of the Derg-era Ethiopian Parliament, was elected and enthroned as Abuna Merkorios. Following the fall of the Derg regime in 1991, and the coming to power of the EPRDF government, Merkorios abdicated under public pressure. The church then elected a new Patriarch, Paulos, who was recognized by the Coptic Orthodox Pope of Alexandria. The former Merkorios then fled abroad, and announced from exile that his abdication had been made under duress and thus he was still the legitimate Patriarch of Ethiopia. Several bishops also went into exile and formed a break-away alternate synod.[35] The Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church was granted autocephaly from the Ethiopian Orthodox Church on 28 September 1993 following ratification by Coptic church Patriarch Shenouda III. The schism has met opposition from dissent that saw it as a disintegration of Ethiopia's spiritual heritage.[36]

There are many Ethiopian Orthodox churches located throughout the United States and other countries to which Ethiopians have migrated (Archbishop Yesehaq 1997).

Paulos died on 16 August 2012. On 28 February 2013, a college of electors assembled in Addis Ababa and elected Mathias to be the 6th Patriarch of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.[37]

On 25 July 2018, delegates from the Patriarchate in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia and those in the United States, declared reunification in Washington, D.C. Declaring the end of a 26-year-old schism, the church announced that it acknowledges two Patriarchs, Merkorios, Fourth Patriarch of Ethiopia and Mathias I, Sixth Patriarch and Catholicos of Ethiopia, Archbishop of Axum and Ichege of the See of Saint Taklehaimanot.[38] After the reunification of the church fathers Abune Merkorios,the fourth Patriarch of Ethiopia died on 3 March 2022.[39]

On 22 January 2023, an attempt to overthrow Abune Mathias was failed following a secret formation of new 26-made bishop Synod led by Abune Sawiros in Oromia Region diocese, such as in Haro Beale Wold Church in Woliso, and nine bishops of diocese outside the region. The Patriarchate called it an "illegal appointment", where Abune Mathias decried it as "great event that has targeted the church".[40][41] After not apologising for the illegal ordination, three Archbishops were excommunicated by the Holy Synod on 26 January.[42] On 31 January 2023, Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed convened a discussion surrounding the incident where he responded he is ready to resolve the conflict. The speech led backlash from the Holy Synod and accused his government of meddling in the Church in reference to separation of church and state in the Article 11 of the FDRE Constitution.[43][44]

On 4 February, three people were reportedly killed in Shashemene by the Oromia Special Forces. According Tewahedo Media Center (TMC), two Orthodox youth were killed and four others were injured by the Oromo Special Forces. Abune Henok, Archbishop of Addis Ababa Diocese described it as "shameful and heart-wrenching".[45] In response to grievance, numerous celebrities expressed their solidarity to the Church via social media and other platforms and donned black clothing during three-days Fast of Nineveh.[46][47] On 9 February, the government imposed restrictions on social sites targeted to Facebook, Messenger, Telegram and TikTok.[48][49] On the next day, the delegation of Synod held an urgent meeting with Abiy at his office, which resulted in condemnation of the proclaimed Oromia Synod from Abiy.[50] On 12 February, a nationwide protest was postponed. Abune Petros, the Secretary of the Holy Synod announced that the demonstration would be postponed following peaceful talks with the Prime Minister and a government agreement to solve the problem.[51] On 15 February, the Church reached an agreement with the illegally ordinated synod.[52] The government lifted the internet ban after five months on 17 July.[53]

Traditions

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Inside Debre Sema'it village rock church
 
Priests and deacons conducting a church liturgy service at Debre Meheret Kedus Michael Ethiopian Orthodox Cathedral, Washington, DC, US

The faith and practice of Orthodox Ethiopian Christians include elements from Miaphysite Christianity as it has developed in Ethiopia over the centuries. Christian beliefs include belief in God (in Geʽez / Amharic, ′Egziabeher, lit. "Lord of the Universe"), veneration of the Virgin Mary, the angels, and the saints, besides others. According to the Ethiopian Orthodox Church itself, there are no non-Christian elements in the religion other than those from the Old Testament, or Həggä 'Orät (ሕገ ኦሪት),[citation needed] to which are added those from the New Testament, or Həggä Wongel (ሕገ ወንጌል).[54] A hierarchy of K'ədusan ቅዱሳን[citation needed] (angelic messengers and saints) conveys the prayers of the faithful to God and carries out the divine will, so when an Ethiopian Christian is in difficulty, he or she appeals to them as well as to God. In more formal and regular rituals, priests communicate on behalf of the community, and only priests may enter the inner sanctum of the usually circular or octagonal church where the tabot ("ark") dedicated to the church's patron saint is housed.[55][unreliable source?] On important religious holidays, the tabot is carried on the head of a priest and escorted in procession outside the church. It is the tabot, not the church, which is consecrated. At many services, most parish members remain in the outer ring, where debteras sing hymns and dance.[56]

 
Mid-20th century processional cross from the Amhara Region, typically carried on long poles in Ethiopian Orthodox religious processions

The Eucharist is given only to those who feel pure, have fasted regularly, and have, in general, properly conducted themselves.[55] In practice, communion is mainly limited to young children and the elderly; those who are at a sexually active age or who have sexual desires generally do not receive the Eucharist.[citation needed] Worshipers receiving communion may enter the middle ring of the church to do so.[55]

Ethiopian Orthodox believers are strict Trinitarians,[57] maintaining the Orthodox teaching that God is united in three persons: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. This concept is known as səllase (ሥላሴ),[citation needed] Geʽez for "Trinity".

Daily services constitute only a small part of an Ethiopian Orthodox Christian's religious observance. Several holy days require prolonged services, singing and dancing, and feasting.

Fast days

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Main article: Fasting and abstinence in the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church

An important religious requirement, however, is the keeping of fast days, during which adherents abstain from consuming meat and animal products, and refrain from sexual activity.[55][58][59] The Ethiopian Orthodox Church has 250 fasting days, 180 of which are obligatory for laypeople, not just monks and priests, when vegan food is eaten by the faithful. During the 40-day Advent fast, only one vegan meal is allowed per day.[60]

 
An Ethiopian Orthodox ceremony at Fasilides' Bath in Gondar, Ethiopia, celebrating Timkat (Epiphany)
  1. Fast for Hudadi or Abiye Tsome [ሁዳዴ/ዓብይ ጾም] (Great Lent), 55 days prior to Easter (Fasika).[61][62] This fast is divided into three separate periods: Tsome Hirkal (ጾመ ህርቃል), eight days commemorating Heraclius; Tsome Arba (ጾመ አርባ), forty days of Lent; and Tsome Himamat (ጾመ ሕማማት), seven days commemorating Holy Week.[61][62][63]
  2. Fast of the Apostles, 10–40 days, which the Apostles kept after they had received the Holy Spirit. It begins after Pentecost.
  3. The fast Tsome Dihnet (ጾመ ድህነት), which is on Wednesdays in commemoration of the plot organized to kill Jesus Christ by Caiaphas and the members of the house of the high priest and Fridays in commemoration of the Crucifixion of Jesus Christ (starts on Wednesday after Pentecost and spans up to Easter, in other words all Wednesdays and Fridays except during 50 days after Easter).[55]
  4. The fast of Dormition, 16 days.
  5. The fast preceding Christmas, 40 days (Advent). It begins with Sibket on 15th Hedar and ends on Christmas Eve with the feast of Gena and the 29th of Tahsas and 28th if the year is preceded by leap year.
  6. The Fast of Nineveh, commemorating the preaching of Jonah. It comes on Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday of the third week before Lent.
  7. The gahad of Timkat (Epiphany), fast on the eve of Epiphany.

In addition to standard holy days, most Christians observe many saints' days. A man might give a small feast on his personal saint's day. The local voluntary association (called the maheber) connected with each church honours its patron saint with a special service and a feast two or three times a year.[56]

Monasticism

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Main article: Christian monasticism in Ethiopia

Exorcism

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Inda Abba Hadera holy water in Inda Sillasie

Priests intervene and perform exorcisms on behalf of those believed to be afflicted by demons or buda. According to a 2010 Pew Research Center study, 74% of Christians in Ethiopia report having experienced or witnessed an exorcism.[64] Demon-possessed persons are brought to a church or prayer meeting.[65] Often, when an ill person has not responded to modern medical treatment, the affliction is attributed to demons.[65] Unusual or especially perverse deeds, particularly when performed in public, are symptomatic of a demoniac.[65] Superhuman strength—such as breaking one's bindings, as described in the New Testament accounts—along with glossolalia are observed in the afflicted.[65] Amsalu Geleta, in a modern case study, relates elements that are common to Ethiopian Christian exorcisms:

It includes singing praise and victory songs, reading from the Scripture, prayer and confronting the spirit in the name of Jesus. Dialogue with the spirit is another important part of the exorcism ceremony. It helps the counsellor (exorcist) to know how the spirit was operating in the life of the demoniac. The signs and events mentioned by the spirit are affirmed by the victim after deliverance.[65]

The exorcism is not always successful, and Geleta notes another instance in which the usual methods were unsuccessful, and the demons apparently left the subject at a later time. In any event, "in all cases the spirit is commanded in no other name than the name of Jesus."[65]

Biblical canon

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Main article: Orthodox Tewahedo biblical canon

The Old Testament Books:

  1. Genesis
  2. Exodus
  3. Leviticus
  4. Numbers
  5. Deuteronomy
  6. Joshua
  7. Judges
  8. Ruth
  9. 1st & 2nd Samuel
  10. 1st & 2nd Kings
  11. 1st Chronicles
  12. 2nd Chronicles (incl. Prayer of Manasseh)
  13. Jubilees
  14. Enoch
  15. 1st & 2nd Esdras
  16. 3rd Esdras & Ezra Sutuel
  17. Tobit
  18. Judith
  19. Esther (with additions)
  20. 1st Meqabyan*
  21. 2nd & 3rd Meqabyan
  22. Josippon
  23. Job
  24. Psalms (incl. Psalm 151)
  25. Proverbs
  26. Reproof
  27. Ecclesiastes
  28. Song of Solomon
  29. Wisdom of Solomon
  30. Ecclesiasticus
  31. Isaiah
  32. Jeremiah (incl. Lamentations, 1st Baruch, Letter of Jeremiah, & 4th Baruch)
  33. Ezekiel
  34. Daniel (with additions, incl. Susanna & Bel and the Dragon)
  35. Hosea
  36. Joel
  37. Amos
  38. Obadiah
  39. Jonah
  40. Micah
  41. Nahum
  42. Habakkuk
  43. Zephaniah
  44. Haggai
  45. Zechariah
  46. Malachi

The New Testament Books:

  1. Matthew
  2. Mark
  3. Luke
  4. John
  5. Acts
  6. Romans
  7. 1st Corinthians
  8. 2nd Corinthians
  9. Galatians
  10. Ephesians
  11. Philippians
  12. Colossians
  13. 1st Thessalonians
  14. 2nd Thessalonians
  15. 1st Timothy
  16. 2nd Timothy
  17. Titus
  18. Philemon
  19. Hebrews
  20. James
  21. 1st Peter
  22. 2nd Peter
  23. 1st John
  24. 2nd John
  25. 3rd John
  26. Jude
  27. Revelation
  28. 1st Sinodos
  29. 2nd Sinodos
  30. 3rd Sinodos
  31. 4th Sinodos
  32. 1st Covenant
  33. 2nd Covenant
  34. Ethiopic Clement
  35. Didascalia
 
Drawing of the Virgin Mary 'with her beloved son' in pencil and ink, from a manuscript copy of Weddasé Māryām, c. 1875

Language

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Ethiopian Orthodox celebration of Meskel (Geʽez for "cross")

The divine services of the Ethiopian Church are celebrated in Geʽez, which has been the liturgical language of the church at least since the arrival of the Nine Saints (Pantelewon, Gerima (Isaac, or Yeshaq), Aftse, Guba, Alef, Yem’ata, Liqanos, and Sehma), who are believed to have fled persecution by the Byzantine Empire after the Council of Chalcedon (451).[66] The Greek Septuagint was the version of the Old Testament originally translated into Ge'ez, but later revisions show clear evidence of the use of Hebrew, Syriac and Arabic sources. The first translation into a modern vernacular was done in the 19th century by a man usually known as Abu Rumi (died 1819). Later, Haile Selassie sponsored Amharic translations of the Ge'ez Scriptures during his reign (1930–1974): one in 1935 before World War II and one afterwards (1960–1961).[67] Sermons today are usually delivered in the local language.

Architecture

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The Church of Saint George, a monolithic church in Lalibela

There are many monolithic (rock-hewn) churches in Ethiopia, most famously eleven churches at Lalibela. Besides these, two main types of architecture are found—one basilican, the other native. The Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion at Axum is an example of the basilican design, though the early basilicas are nearly all in ruin. These examples show the influence of the architects who, in the 6th century, built the basilicas at Sanʻāʼ and elsewhere in the Arabian Peninsula. There are two forms of native churches: one oblong, traditionally found in Tigray; the other circular, traditionally found in Amhara and Shewa (though either style may be found elsewhere). In both forms, the sanctuary is square and stands clear in the centre, and the arrangements are based on Jewish tradition. Walls and ceilings are adorned with frescoes. A courtyard, circular or rectangular, surrounds the body of the church. Modern Ethiopian churches may incorporate the basilican or native styles and use contemporary construction techniques and materials. In rural areas, the church and outer court are often thatched, with mud-built walls. The church buildings are typically surrounded by a forested area, acting as a reservoir of biodiversity in otherwise de-forested parts of the country.[68][69][24]

Ark of the Covenant

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The Chapel of the Tablet at the Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion is said to house the original Ark of the Covenant.

The Ethiopian Church claims that one of its churches, Our Lady Mary of Zion, is host to the original Ark of the Covenant that Moses carried with the Israelites during the Exodus. Only one priest is allowed into the building where the Ark is located, ostensibly due to biblical warnings of danger. As a result, international scholars doubt that the original Ark is truly there.[citation needed]

Throughout Ethiopia, Orthodox churches are not considered churches until the local bishop gives them a tabot, a replica of the original Ark of the Covenant.[70][71] The tabot is at least six inches (15 cm) square, and it is made of either alabaster, marble, or wood (see acacia). It is always kept in ornate coverings on the altar.[70] Only priests are allowed to see or touch the tabot.[71][72] In an elaborate procession, the tabot is carried around the outside of the church amid joyful song on the feast day of that particular church's namesake.[70] On the great Feast of T'imk'et, known as Epiphany or Theophany in Europe, a group of churches send their tabot to celebrate the occasion at a common location where a pool of water or a river is to be found.[73]

Similarities to Judaism and Islam

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The Ethiopian Church, Jerusalem

The Ethiopian Church places a heavier emphasis on Old Testament teachings than one might find in other churches. Women are prohibited from entering the church temple during menses;[74] they are also expected to cover their hair with a large scarf (or shash) while in church, as described in 1 Corinthians, chapter 11. As with Orthodox synagogues, men and women sit separately in the Ethiopian church, with men on the left and women on the right (when facing the altar).[75] (Women covering their heads and separation of the sexes in churches officially is common to few other Christian traditions; it is also the rule in some non-Christian religions, Islam and Orthodox Judaism among them).[76]

Before praying, the Ethiopian Orthodox remove their shoes in order to acknowledge that one is offering prayer before a holy God.[77] Ethiopian Orthodox worshippers remove their shoes when entering a church temple,[75] in accordance with Exodus 3:5 (in which Moses, while viewing the burning bush, was commanded to remove his shoes while standing on holy ground). Furthermore, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church is known to observe the seventh-day Sabbath (Saturday, or the lesser Sabbath), in addition to the Lord's Day (Sunday, or the Christian Sabbath),[78] recognizing both to be holy days of joy, prayer, and contemplation, although more emphasis, because of the Resurrection of Christ, is laid upon Sunday. While the Ethiopian Church is known for this practice, it is neither an innovation nor unique to it,[79] deriving from the Apostolic Constitutions and the Apostolic Canons[80][81] the former of which without the Apostolic Canons included is in the church's 81-book canon as the Didascalia. The nature of the Sabbath only became a doctrinal dispute in the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria in the centuries leading up to the issue being rectified by Ewostatewos.[82] The emperor Gelawdewos in his Confession, an apologia of traditional beliefs and practices says "we do not honour it as the Jews do... but we so honour it that we celebrate thereon the Eucharist and have love-feasts, even as our Fathers the Apostles have taught us in the Didascalia".[83]

The Ethiopian Church does not call for circumcision, yet it is a cultural practice,[84] as is abstention from pork and other meats deemed unclean. It is not regarded as being necessary to salvation. The liturgy mentions, "let us not be circumcised like the Jews."[85]

The Ethiopian Orthodox Church observes days of ritual purification.[86][87] People who are ritually unclean may approach the church but are not permitted to enter it; they instead stand near the church door and pray during the liturgy.[88]

Rugare Rukuni and Erna Oliver identify the Nine Saints as Jewish Christians, and attribute the Judaic character of Ethiopian Christianity, in part, to their influence.[89]: 6, 8 

Debtera

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Main article: Debtera
 
A painting of performing debteras

A debtera is an itinerant lay priest figure (not a member of the priesthood) trained by the Ethiopian Church to function principally as a scribe or cantor. But often he is also a folk healer, who may also function in roles comparable to a deacon or exorcist. Folklore and legends ascribe the role of magician to the debtera as well.[90]

Music

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Main article: Orthodox Tewahedo music
 
Ethiopian Orthodox priests dancing during 2015 Timkat celebration

The music of Ethiopian Orthodox Church traced back to Saint Yared, who composed Zema or "chant", which divided into three modes: Geʽez (ordinary days), Ezel (fast days and Lent) and Araray (principal feasts).[91] It is important to Ethiopian liturgy and divided into fourteen Anaphoras, the normal use being of the Twelve Apostles. In ancient times, there were six Anaphoras used by many monasteries.[92]

Patriarch-Catholicoi, archbishops and bishops

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Patriarch-Catholicos
Main article: List of abunas of Ethiopia

Since 1959, when the church was granted autocephaly by Cyril VI, Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, an Ethiopian Patriarch-Catholicos of Eritrea also carrying the title of Abuna is the head of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church. The Abuna is officially known as Patriarch and Catholicos of Ethiopia, Archbishop of Axum and Ichege of the See of Saint Taklahaimanot. The incumbent head of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church is Mathias who acceded to this position on 28 February 2013.

Archbishops and bishops

Ethiopia:

  • Mathias, Patriarch and Head of all Archbishops of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church

Canada:

  • Demetrios, archbishop of Eastern Canada
  • Abraham, archbishop of Western Canada[93]

Middle East:

  • Dimetros, Archbishop of the United Arab Emirates and its surrounding areas
  • Kewestos, Archbishop of Jerusalem[94]

South America:

  • Thaddaeus, archbishop of the Caribbean and Latin America

United States:

  • Fanuel, archbishop of Washington, D.C.[95]
  • Markos, archbishop of New York and its surrounding areas.
  • Philipos, archbishop of Pennsylvania and Head of Eyesus Church in Baltimore
  • Yaekob, archbishop of Georgia and its surrounding areas (Southeastern States)
  • Natnael, archbishop of Minnesota and its surrounding areas.
  • Natnael, archbishop of Colorado and surrounding areas
  • Selama, archbishop of Ohio
  • Sawiros, archbishop of Texas
  • Michael, archbishop of Northern California
  • Barnabas, archbishop of Southern California

Western Europe:

  • Yosef, Archbishop of Europe, in Rome.

Australia & New Zealand:

  • Lukas, Archbishop of Australia & New Zealand

Eparchies

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The current eparchies of the church include:[96]

See also

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Further reading

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  • Budge, Ernest Alfred Wallis (1928). The Book of the Saints of the Ethiopian church . Cambridge, The University Press.

References

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  1. ^ a b Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, Addis Ababa. "የኢትዮጵያ ኦርቶዶክስ ተዋሕዶ ቤተ ክርስቲያን". ZEOrthodox.org. Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church. Retrieved 2021-06-20.
  2. ^ a b "Orthodox Christianity in the 21st Century". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. 8 November 2017. Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church has an estimated 36 million adherents, nearly 14% of the world's total Orthodox population.
  3. ^ a b "Ethiopia: An outlier in the Orthodox Christian world". Pew Research Center.
  4. ^ a b "Ethiopia". The World Factbook. 6 November 2023. Retrieved 2022-09-16. Population 116,462,712 (2023 est.)… Ethiopian Orthodox 43.8%
  5. ^ a b Harrower, Michael J (Winter 2019). "Beta Samati: discovery and excavation of an Aksumite town" (PDF). Antiquity. 93 (372): 1534–52. doi:10.15184/aqy.2019.84 – via Cambridge.org.
  6. ^ Moore, Dale H. (1936). "Christianity in Ethiopia". Church History. 5 (3): 271–284. doi:10.2307/3160789. ISSN 0009-6407. JSTOR 3160789. S2CID 162029676.
  7. ^ "Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church", World Council of Churches website (accessed 2 June 2009)
  8. ^ "Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2022-09-16.
  9. ^ Pope Shenouda III of Alexandria (1999). "NATURE OF CHRIST" (PDF). copticchurch.net. St. Mark Coptic Orthodox Church. Retrieved 30 November 2014.
  10. ^ Cyril of Alexandria; Pusey, P. E. (Trans.). "From His Second Book Against the Words of Theodore". The Tertullian Project. Retrieved 30 November 2014.
  11. ^ The Blackwell Companion to Eastern Christianity by Ken Parry 2009 ISBN 1-4443-3361-5 page 88 [1]
  12. ^ "Catholic Encyclopedia: Henoticon". Newadvent.org. 1910-06-01. Retrieved 2013-06-30.
  13. ^ Winkler 1997, p. 33-40.
  14. ^ Brock 2016, p. 45–52.
  15. ^ a b c Meskel and the Ethiopians. EOTC Publication Committee, September 2015
  16. ^ Socrates and Sozomenus Ecclesiastical Histories, p. 57.
  17. ^ "St. Matthew". Catholic Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2015-12-04.
  18. ^ Meskel and the Ethiopians. EOTC Publication Committee September 2015
  19. ^ Irenaeus of Lyons, "Adversus haereses" III. 12. 8
  20. ^ Eusebius Pamphilius, Church History
  21. ^ a b Butler 1911, p. 95.
  22. ^ Curtin, D. P. (January 2007). Laetentur Caeli: Bulls of Union with the Greeks, Armenians, Coptic, and Ethiopian Churches. Dalcassian Publishing Company. ISBN 9798869171504.
  23. ^ Butler 1911, pp. 95–96.
  24. ^ a b c Butler 1911, p. 96.
  25. ^ a b c d e Daniels, David D. (21 October 2017). "Honor the Reformation's African roots". The Commercial Appeal. Retrieved 9 April 2018.
  26. ^ "Martin Luther and Ethiopian Christianity: Historical Traces". The University of Chicago Divinity School. Retrieved 2022-01-28.
  27. ^ Daniels, David D. (2 November 2017). "Martin Luther and Ethiopian Christianity: Historical Traces". University of Chicago. Retrieved 9 April 2018. Luther expressed his approval of the Church of Ethiopia along with his embrace of Deacon Michael in a letter dated July 4, 1534: "For this reason we ask that good people would demonstrate Christian love also to this [Ethiopian] visitor." According to Luther, Michael responded positively to his articles of the Christian faith, proclaiming: "This is a good creed, that is, faith" (see Martin Luther, Table-Talk, November 17, 1538 [WA, TR 4:152–53, no. 4126]).
  28. ^ Daniels, David D. (31 October 2017). "Martin Luther's fascination with Ethiopian Christianity". The Christian Century. Retrieved 9 April 2018. Luther extended full fellowship to Deacon Michael and the Ethiopian Church, an invitation Luther withheld from the Bohemian Brethren (the Hussites) and Reformed Churches connected to Ulrich Zwingli.
  29. ^ Edward Ullendorff, Ethiopia and the Bible (Oxford: British Academy, 1988), p. 66
  30. ^ Margary Perham, The Government of Ethiopia, second edition (London: Faber and Faber, 1969), pp. 121f
  31. ^ Perham, Government of Ethiopia, p. 132
  32. ^ Perham, Government of Ethiopia, pp. 130
  33. ^ Discussed in fuller detail by Perham, Government of Ethiopia, pp. 126–130
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  35. ^ Goldman, Ari L. (22 September 1992). "U.S. Branch Leaves Ethiopian Orthodox Church". The New York Times. Retrieved 29 April 2016.
  36. ^ Prunier, Gérard; Ficquet, Éloi (2015). Understanding Contemporary Ethiopia. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-1-84904-261-1.
  37. ^ "Ethiopian church appoints Abune Mathias as patriarch". BBC News. 2013-03-01. Retrieved 2013-03-03.
  38. ^ "Ethiopian Church officially declared reunification in the presence of PM Abiy Ahmed". Borkena Ethiopian News. 2018-07-26. Archived from the original on 2021-09-23. Retrieved 2021-09-11.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  39. ^ AfricaNews (2022-03-12). "Ethiopia bids farewell to Patriarch Abune Merkorios". Africanews. Retrieved 2025-01-13.
  40. ^ "Analysis: Shock, controversy rocks Ethiopian Orthodox Church after Popes suspended for involving in "illegal appointment" threaten to split". Addis Standard. 2023-01-24. Retrieved 2023-01-25.
  41. ^ "Breakaway bishops threaten split in Ethiopia church". The Star. Retrieved 2023-01-25.
  42. ^ Account (2023-01-27). "Ethiopian Orthodox Church Excommunicated three subversive Archbishops". Borkena Ethiopian News. Retrieved 2023-02-04.
  43. ^ Account (2023-02-01). "Ethiopian Church threatens to stage a nationwide peaceful demonstration". Borkena Ethiopian News. Retrieved 2023-02-04.
  44. ^ St, Addis; ard (2023-02-02). "News Analysis: As schism deepens, Orthodox Synod slams PM Abiy's remarks on ongoing crisis point by point, threaten to organize worldwide protest". Addis Standard. Retrieved 2023-02-04.
  45. ^ "Three Killed in Attacks on Ethiopian Orthodox Church, According to a Report". VOA. 4 February 2023. Retrieved 2023-02-05.
  46. ^ Insight, Addis (2023-02-04). "Celebrities, Diplomats, and Influencers Stand United in Support of Ethiopian Orthodox Church". Addis Insight. Retrieved 2023-02-08.
  47. ^ St, Addis; ard (2023-02-03). "News: Orthodox Synod declares it faithful to wear black for the Fast of Nineveh in protest against "illegal group"". Addis Standard. Retrieved 2023-02-09.
  48. ^ "Ethiopia Orthodox Church split: Social media restricted". BBC News. 2023-02-10. Retrieved 2023-02-10.
  49. ^ Nigeria, News Agency of (2023-02-10). "Internet blocked in Ethiopia after church rift turns violence". Peoples Gazette. Retrieved 2023-02-10.
  50. ^ St, Addis; ard (2023-02-10). "NewsAlert: PM Abiy in meeting with Orthodox Patriarch". Addis Standard. Retrieved 2023-02-10.
  51. ^ AfricaNews (2023-02-12). "Ethiopia Orthodox leaders postpone protest called amid hegemony claims". Africanews. Retrieved 2023-02-12.
  52. ^ "Ethiopian Orthodox Church reaches deal with three rogue bishops". www.aljazeera.com. Retrieved 2023-02-16.
  53. ^ "Ethiopian Govt Lifts Internet Restrictions". allAfrica.com. 2023-07-19. Retrieved 2023-07-20.
  54. ^ EOTC Doctrine Archived 2011-07-27 at the Wayback Machine
  55. ^ a b c d e Professor Sergew Hable Sellassie & Belaynesh Mikael (2003) [1970]. "Worship in the Ethiopian Orthodox Church". The Church of Ethiopia – A Panorama of History and Spiritual Life. Addis Ababa. Retrieved 5 November 2014 – via EthiopianOrthodox.org.
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  59. ^ James Jeffrey (22 March 2017). "Ethiopia: fasting for 55 days". Deutsche Welle. Retrieved 24 March 2017.
  60. ^ "A 40-Day Vegan Fast, Then, At Last, A January Christmas Feast". NPR.org. Retrieved 2021-06-15.
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  63. ^ "Great Lent - Abiy Tsom - ዐብይ ጾም First Sunday - Zewerede - ዘወረደ". Toronto, ON: Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church Keraneyo Medhane Alem. 3 March 2021. Retrieved 27 February 2023.
  64. ^ "Ten things we have learnt about Africa". BBC News. April 15, 2010. Retrieved April 15, 2010. In Ethiopia, 74% of Christians say they have experienced or witnessed the devil or evil spirits being driven out of a person
  65. ^ a b c d e f Geleta, Amsalu Tadesse. "Case Study: Demonization and the Practice of Exorcism in Ethiopian Churches Archived 2010-01-01 at the Wayback Machine". Lausanne Committee for World Evangelization, Nairobi, August 2000.
  66. ^ Taddesse Tamrat, Church and State in Ethiopia, 1270-1527 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), p. 23
  67. ^ Ullendorff, Ethiopia and the Bible, pp. 31-72
  68. ^ Abbott, Alison. "Biodiversity thrives in Ethiopia's church forests". Nature. Retrieved 31 January 2019.
  69. ^ Bahnson, Fred (January 11, 2020). "The Church Forests of Ethiopia: A Mystical Geography". Emergence Magazine.
  70. ^ a b c "tabot". British Museum. Retrieved 2024-01-31. Curator's comments… The Tabots remain in the Qeddest Qeddusan and are only brought out of the churches at festival times or in times of calamity, in order to pray for divine help. When they leave the Queddest Qeddusan they are carried on the heads of priests, veiled from public view by richly decorated cloths. Ornate silk umbrellas are held over the Tabots as a sign of respect.
  71. ^ a b "The Ark of Covenant". The Official Website of Eritrean Orthodox Tewahdo Church. 2021-12-01. Retrieved 2024-02-02.
  72. ^ Habtamu Teshome (2023-01-16). "Liturgical Worship, Part Three: Unique Features of Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church". Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church Sunday School Department. Mahibere Kidusan. Retrieved 2024-02-02.
  73. ^ "Ethiopian epiphany". UNESCO. 2019. Retrieved 2024-02-07.
  74. ^ Daoud, Marcos; Hazen, Blatta Marsie (1991). "The Liturgy of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church". Ethiopian Orthodox Church. Retrieved 24 August 2020.
  75. ^ a b Hable Selassie, Sergew (1997). The Church of Ethiopia – A panorama of History and Spiritual Life. Addis Abeba, Ethiopia: Berhanena Selam. p. 66.
  76. ^ Duffner, Jordan Denari (13 February 2014). "Wait, I thought that was a Muslim thing?!". Commonweal. Retrieved 26 July 2020.
  77. ^ Kosloski, Philip (16 October 2017). "Did you know Muslims pray in a similar way to some Christians?". Aleteia. Retrieved 25 July 2020.
  78. ^ Binns, John (28 November 2016). The Orthodox Church of Ethiopia: A History. I.B.Tauris. p. 58. ISBN 9781786720375. The king presided, overruled the bishops who were committed to the more usual position that Sunday only was a holy day, and decreed that the Sabbatarian teaching of the northern monks became the position of the church.
  79. ^ "The Sabbath: A Hallowed and Holy Day". Coptic Orthodox Diocese of the Southern United States. Since the first century, Christians made Sunday the Christian Sabbath and kept Saturday as the Jewish Sabbath.
  80. ^ "The Ethiopic Didascalia: Or, the Ethiopic Version of the Apostolical Constitutions, Received in the Church of Abyssinia". Assemble yourselves together in the church, evening and morning; offer up praises, and sing; and read the Psalms of David, the sixty-second, and moreover the hundred and fortieth. And especially on the Jewish Sabbath, and on the first day of the week, the Christian Sabbath, which is the day of His holy resurrection, offer up praises and thanksgivings and glory to the Lord, who hath created all things by his Son Jesus Christ, whom he sent unto us, who was pleased to suffer according to his will, and was buried in the tomb, and rose again from the dead.
  81. ^ "Apostolic Constitutions (Book VIII)". New Advent. XXXIII. I Peter and Paul do make the following constitutions. Let the slaves work five days; but on the Sabbath day and the Lord's day let them have leisure to go to church for instruction in piety. We have said that the Sabbath is on account of the creation, and the Lord's day of the resurrection. Let slaves rest from their work all the great week, and that which follows it — for the one in memory of the passion, and the other of the resurrection; and there is need they should be instructed who it is that suffered and rose again, and who it is permitted Him to suffer, and raised Him again. Let them have rest from their work on the Ascension, because it was the conclusion of the dispensation by Christ. Let them rest at Pentecost, because of the coming of the Holy Spirit, which was given to those that believed in Christ. Let them rest on the festival of His birth, because on it the unexpected favour was granted to men, that Jesus Christ, the Logos of God, should be born of the Virgin Mary, for the salvation of the world. Let them rest on the festival of Epiphany, because on it a manifestation took place of the divinity of Christ, for the Father bore testimony to Him at the baptism; and the Paraclete, in the form of a dove, pointed out to the bystanders Him to whom testimony was borne. Let them rest on the days of the apostles: for they were appointed your teachers to bring you to Christ, and made you worthy of the Spirit. Let them rest on the day of the first martyr Stephen, and of the other holy martyrs who preferred Christ to their own life.
  82. ^ Tamrat, Taddesse (1972). Church and State in Ethiopia, 1270-1527. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-821671-1. OCLC 653228.
  83. ^ Abir, Mordechai (28 October 2013). Ethiopia and the Red Sea: The Rise and Decline of the Solomonic Dynasty and Muslim European Rivalry in the Region. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-28090-0.
  84. ^ "Issue 122 – Circumcision and the Copts | the British Orthodox Church".
  85. ^ "Gizret - ግዝረት [Circumcision]". 9 January 2022.
  86. ^ Ian Bradley (2 November 2012). Water: A Spiritual History. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4411-6767-5.
  87. ^ H. Bulzacchelli, Richard (2006). Judged by the Law of Freedom: A History of the Faith-works Controversy, and a Resolution in the Thought of St. Thomas Aquinas. University Press of America. p. 19. ISBN 9780761835011. The Ethiopian and Coptic Churches distinguishes between clean and unclean meats, observes days of ritual purification, and keeps a kind of dual Sabbath on both Saturday and Sunday.
  88. ^ Pedersen, Kristen Stoffregen (1999). "Is the Church of Ethiopia a Judaic Church?". Warszawskie Studia Teologiczne. XII (2): 205–206.
  89. ^ Rukuni, Rugare; Oliver, Erna (January 2019). "Ethiopian Christianity: A continuum of African Early Christian polities". Hervormde Teologiese Studies. 75 (1): 1–9. doi:10.4102/hts.v75i1.5335.
  90. ^ Encyclopaedia Aethiopica (2003). Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: He-N. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 4. ISBN 978-3-447-05607-6.
  91. ^ "YARED: THE COMPOSER OF HUMNS" (PDF). 23 August 2022.
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  93. ^ "Committees". Edmonton, AB: Debre Selam Medhanealem Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church. Retrieved 2023-12-07.
  94. ^ "Jerusalem – Heads of Churches". World Council of Churches. Archived from the original on 2011-08-28.
  95. ^ "Protest Held In Washington, DC Against Religious Attacks In Ethiopia". Getty Images. 2023-04-05. Retrieved 2023-12-07. Abune Fanuel, archbishop of Washington DC for the Ethiopian Orthodox church is surrounded by young deacons and clergy as he speaks during a demonstration at the White House on February 05, 2023 in Washington, DC.
  96. ^ Eparchies of the Ethiopian Church (Russian)

Bibliography

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